Phenylalanine (abbreviated as Phe or F)[1] is an α-amino acid Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group, a carboxylic acid group and a side chain that varies between different amino acids. These molecules contain the key elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These molecules are particularly important in biochemistry, where this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula with the formula A chemical formula or molecular formula is a way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound HO2CCH(NH2)CH2C6H5. This essential amino acid An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism , and therefore must be supplied in the diet is classified as nonpolar In chemistry, polarity refers to a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule having an electric dipole. Polar molecules can bond together due to dipole–dipole intermolecular forces between one molecule with asymmetrical charge distribution and another molecule also with asymmetrical charge distribution. Molecular polarity is dependent because of the hydrophobic In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule (known as a hydrophobe) that is repelled from a mass of water nature of the benzyl In organic chemistry, benzyl is the term used to describe the substituent or molecular fragment possessing the structure C6H5CH2-. The abbreviation "Bn" is frequently used to denote benzyl moieties in nomenclature and structural depictions of chemical compounds. For example, benzyl alcohol can be represented as BnOH. This abbreviation is side chain. L-Phenylalanine (LPA) is an electrically-neutral amino acid Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group, a carboxylic acid group and a side chain that varies between different amino acids. These molecules contain the key elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These molecules are particularly important in biochemistry, where this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula, one of the twenty common amino acids used to biochemically form proteins Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a globular form. The amino acids in a polymer are joined together by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded, coded for by DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid ( /diːˌɒksɨˌraɪbɵ.nuːˈkleɪ.ɪk ˈæsɪd/ (help·info)) (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of. The codons The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells. The code defines a mapping between tri-nucleotide sequences, called codons, and amino acids. With some exceptions, a triplet codon in a nucleic acid sequence usually specifies a single amino acid for L-phenylalanine are UUU and UUC. Phenylalanine is a precursor for tyrosine Tyrosine or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize proteins. Its codons are UAC and UAU. It is a non-essential amino acid with a polar side group. The word "tyrosine" is from the Greek tyri, meaning cheese, as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in the, the monoamine Monoamine neurotransmitters are neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that contain one amino group that is connected to an aromatic ring by a two-carbon chain . All monoamines are derived from aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, and the thyroid hormones by the action of aromatic amino acid decarboxylase enzymes signaling molecules dopamine Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter that occurs in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their variants. Dopamine is produced in several areas of the brain,, norepinephrine Norepinephrine (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline (BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a catecholamine with multiple roles including as a hormone and a neurotransmitter (noradrenaline), and epinephrine Epinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter.. It increases heart rate, contracts blood vessels, dilates air passages and participates in the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. Chemically, epinephrine is a catecholamine, a monoamine produced only by the adrenal glands from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine (adrenaline), and the skin pigment A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, in which a material emits light melanin Melanin (Greek μέλας, black; pronounced /ˈmɛlənɪn/ ) is a class of compounds found in plants, animals, and protists, where it serves predominantly as a pigment. In animals melanin pigments are derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine. The most common form of biological melanin is eumelanin, a brown-black polymer of dihydroxyindole.

Phenylalanine is found naturally in the breast milk of mammals. It is used in the manufacture of food and drink products and sold as a nutritional supplement for its reputed analgesic An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and algos ("pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US as and antidepressant An antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. Drugs including the monoamine oxidase inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and effects. It is a direct precursor to the neuromodulator phenylethylamine Phenethylamine is a natural monoamine alkaloid, trace amine, and psychoactive drug with stimulant effects. In the mammalian central nervous system, phenethylamine is believed to function as a neuromodulator or neurotransmitter. It is biosynthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine by enzymatic decarboxylation. Besides mammals, phenethylamine is, a commonly used dietary supplement.

Contents

Other biological roles

L-phenylalanine is biologically converted into L-tyrosine Tyrosine or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize proteins. Its codons are UAC and UAU. It is a non-essential amino acid with a polar side group. The word "tyrosine" is from the Greek tyri, meaning cheese, as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in the, another one of the DNA-encoded amino acids. L-tyrosine in turn is converted into L-DOPA L-DOPA is a naturally-occurring dietary supplement and psychoactive drug found in certain kinds of food and herbs (e.g., Mucuna pruriens, or velvet bean), and is synthesized from the essential amino acid L-tyrosine (TYR) in the mammalian body and brain. L-DOPA is the precursor to the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and, which is further converted into dopamine Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter that occurs in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their variants. Dopamine is produced in several areas of the brain,, norepinephrine Norepinephrine (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline (BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a catecholamine with multiple roles including as a hormone and a neurotransmitter (noradrenaline), and epinephrine Epinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter.. It increases heart rate, contracts blood vessels, dilates air passages and participates in the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. Chemically, epinephrine is a catecholamine, a monoamine produced only by the adrenal glands from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine (adrenaline). The latter three are known as the catecholamines Catecholamines are sympathomimetic "fight-or-flight" hormones that are released by the adrenal glands in response to stress. They are part of the sympathetic nervous system.

Phenylalanine uses the same active transport channel as tryptophan Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. It is encoded in the standard genetic code as the codon UGG. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine to cross the blood-brain barrier The blood-brain barrier is a separation of circulating blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the central nervous system (CNS). It occurs along all capillaries and consists of tight junctions around the capillaries that don't exist in normal circulation. Endothelial cells restrict the diffusion of microscopic objects (e.g. bacteria) and large or, and, in large quantities, interferes with the production of serotonin Serotonin or 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter, biochemically derived from tryptophan, that is primarily found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, platelets, and central nervous system (CNS) of humans and animals. It is a well-known contributor to feelings of well-being.

Lignan The lignans are a group of chemical compounds found in plants. Lignans are one of the major classes of phytoestrogens, which are estrogen-like chemicals and also act as antioxidants. The other classes of phytoestrogens are the isoflavones, and coumestans. Plant lignans are polyphenolic substances derived from phenylalanine via dimerization of is derived from phenylalanine and from tyrosine Tyrosine or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize proteins. Its codons are UAC and UAU. It is a non-essential amino acid with a polar side group. The word "tyrosine" is from the Greek tyri, meaning cheese, as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in the. Phenylalanine is converted to cinnamic acid Cinnamic acid has the formula C6H5CHCHCOOH and is a white crystalline acid, which is slightly soluble in water. It has a melting point of 133°C and a boiling point of 300°C by the enzyme phenylalanine ammonia lyase.[2]

Phenylketonuria

The genetic disorder phenylketonuria Phenylketonuria is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the hepatic enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH).:541 This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine ('Phe') to the amino acid tyrosine. When PAH is deficient, phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into phenylpyruvate (also known (PKU) is the inability to metabolize phenylalanine. Individuals with this disorder are known as "phenylketonurics" and must regulate their intake of phenylalanine. Pregnant women with hyperphenylalaninemia may show similar symptoms of the disorder (high levels of phenylalanine in blood) but these indicators will usually disappear at the end of gestation. Individuals who cannot metabolize phenylalanine must monitor their intake of protein to control the buildup of phenylalanine as their bodies convert protein into its component amino acids.

A non-food source of phenylalanine is the artificial sweetener aspartame Aspartame (pronounced /ˈæspərteɪm/ or /əˈspɑrteɪm/) is the name for an artificial, non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in many foods and beverages. In the European Union, it is known under the E number (additive code) E951. Aspartame is the methyl ester of a phenylalanine/aspartic acid dipeptide. This compound, sold under the trade names "Equal" and "NutraSweet", is metabolized by the body into several chemical byproducts including phenylalanine. The breakdown problems phenylketonurics have with protein and the attendant build up of phenylalanine in the body also occurs with the ingestion of aspartame, although to a lesser degree. Accordingly, all products in Australia, the U.S. and Canada that contain aspartame must be labeled: "Phenylketonurics: Contains phenylalanine." In the UK, foods containing aspartame must carry ingredient panels that refer to the presence of "aspartame or E951" [3] and they must be labeled with a warning "Contains a source of phenylalanine." These warnings are specifically placed to aid individuals who suffer from PKU so that they can avoid such foods.

Geneticists have recently sequenced the genome of macaques The macaques constitute a genus (Macaca, /məˈkäkə/) of Old World monkeys of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. Their investigations have found "some instances where the normal form of the macaque protein looks like the diseased human protein" including markers for PKU.[4]

D- and DL-phenylalanine

The stereoisomer Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms , but which differ only in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms in space. Structural isomers share the same molecular formula, but the bond connections and/or their order between different atoms/groups differs. In stereoisomers, the D-phenylalanine (DPA) can be produced by conventional organic synthesis Organic synthesis is a special branch of chemical synthesis and is concerned with the construction of organic compounds via organic reactions. Organic molecules can often contain a higher level of complexity compared to purely inorganic compounds, so the synthesis of organic compounds has developed into one of the most important branches of, either as a single enantiomer In chemistry, an enantiomer is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are "non-superposable" , much as one's left and right hands are "the same" but opposite. The term, pronounced /ɨˈnæntɪ.ɵmər/, is derived from the Greek ἐνάντιος, opposite, and μέρος, part or portion or as a component of the racemic In chemistry, a racemic mixture, or racemate, is one that has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule. The first known racemic mixture was "racemic acid," which Louis Pasteur found to be a mixture of the two enantiomeric isomers of tartaric acid mixture. It does not participate in protein biosynthesis Protein synthesis is the process in which cells build proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step process, beginning with amino acid synthesis and transcription of nuclear DNA into messenger RNA which is then used as input to translation although it is found in proteins in small amounts - particularly aged proteins and food proteins that have been processed Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food processing industry. Food processing typically takes clean, harvested crops or slaughtered and butchered animal products and uses these to. The biological functions of D-amino acids remain unclear although some, such as D-phenylalanine, may have pharmacological activity.

DL-Phenylalanine (DLPA) is marketed as a nutritional supplement for its supposed analgesic An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and algos ("pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US as and antidepressant An antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. Drugs including the monoamine oxidase inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and activities. The reputed analgesic activity of DL-phenylalanine may be explained by the possible blockage by D-phenylalanine of enkephalin An enkephalin is a pentapeptide involved in regulating nociception in the body. The enkephalins are termed endogenous ligands, or specifically endorphins, as they are internally derived and bind to the body's opioid receptors. Discovered in 1975, two forms of enkephalin were revealed, one containing leucine , and the other containing methionine (& degradation by the enzyme Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their carboxypeptidase A.[5] The mechanism of DL-phenylalanine's supposed antidepressant activity may be accounted for by the precursor A protein precursor, also called a pro-protein or pro-peptide, is an inactive protein that can be turned into an active form by posttranslational modification. The name of the precursor for a protein is often prefixed by pro. Examples include proinsulin and proopiomelanocortin role of L-phenylalanine in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals which transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across the synapse. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles that cluster beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptors in the membrane on the postsynaptic norepinephrine Norepinephrine (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline (BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a catecholamine with multiple roles including as a hormone and a neurotransmitter and dopamine Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter that occurs in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their variants. Dopamine is produced in several areas of the brain,. Elevated brain levels of norepinephrine and dopamine are thought to have an antidepressant effect. Following ingestion, D-Phenylalanine is absorbed from the small intestine and transported to the liver via the portal circulation. A small amount of D-phenylalanine appears to be converted to L-phenylalanine. D-Phenylalanine is distributed to the various tissues of the body via the systemic circulation Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. The term is contrasted with pulmonary circulation. It appears to cross the blood-brain barrier less efficiently than L-phenylalanine, and so a small amount of an ingested dose of D-phenylalanine is not absorbed but excreted in the urine.

History

The genetic codon for phenylalanine was first discovered by J. Heinrich Matthaei and Marshall W. Nirenberg in 1961. They showed that by using m-RNA to insert multiple uracil repeats into the genome of the bacterium E. coli, they could cause the bacterium to produce a polypeptide consisting solely of repeated phenylalanine amino acids. This discovery helped to establish the nature of the coding relationship that links information stored in genomic nucleic acid with protein expression in the living cell.

See also

References

  1. ^ IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature. "Nomenclature and Symbolism for Amino Acids and Peptides". Recommendations on Organic & Biochemical Nomenclature, Symbols & Terminology etc. http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/. Retrieved 2007-05-17.
  2. ^ Nelson, D. L.; Cox, M. M. "Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry" 3rd Ed. Worth Publishing: New York, 2000. ISBN 1-57259-153-6.
  3. ^ Aspartame, Food Standards Agency
  4. ^ Scientists decode macaque genome, BBC News, 13 April 2007
  5. ^ Christianson DW, Mangani S, Shoham G, Lipscomb WN. "Binding of D-phenylalanine and D-tyrosine to carboxypeptidase A." Journal of Biological Chemistry 1989 Aug 5;264(22):12849-53. PMID 2568989.

External links

The 20 Common Amino Acids ("dp" = data page)
Branched-chain amino acids Isoleucine (dp) · Leucine (dp) · Valine (dp)
Non Branch-chain Alanine (dp) · Arginine (dp) · Asparagine (dp) · Aspartic acid (dp) · Cysteine (dp) · Glutamic acid (dp) · Glutamine (dp) · Glycine (dp) · Histidine (dp) · Lysine (dp) · Methionine (dp) · Phenylalanine (dp) · Proline (dp) · Serine (dp) · Threonine (dp) · Tryptophan (dp) · Tyrosine (dp)
Other classifications Essential amino acids · Ketogenic amino acid · Glucogenic amino acid
biochemical : (, ) · (, , , , ) · (, , ) · /
Amino acid metabolism metabolic intermediates
K→acetyl-CoA
lysine→ Saccharopine · Allysine · α-Aminoadipic acid · α-Aminoadipate · Glutaryl-CoA · Glutaconyl-CoA · Crotonyl-CoA · β-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA
leucine→ α-Ketoisocaproic acid · Isovaleryl-CoA · 3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA · 3-Methylglutaconyl-CoA · HMG-CoA
tryptophan→alanine→ N'-Formylkynurenine · Kynurenine · Anthranilic acid · 3-Hydroxykynurenine · 3-Hydroxyanthranilic acid · 2-Amino-3-carboxymuconic semialdehyde · 2-Aminomuconic semialdehyde · 2-Aminomuconic acid · Glutaryl-CoA
G
G→pyruvate→citrate
glycine→serine→

3-Phosphoglyceric acid

glycine→creatine: Glycocyamine · Phosphocreatine · Creatinine
G→glutamate→ α-ketoglutarate
histidine→ Urocanic acid · Imidazol-4-one-5-propionic acid · Formiminoglutamic acid · Glutamate-1-semialdehyde
proline→ 1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid
arginine→ Ornithine · Putrescine · Agmatine
other cysteine+glutamate→glutathione: γ-Glutamylcysteine
G→propionyl-CoA→ succinyl-CoA
valine→ α-Ketoisovaleric acid · Isobutyryl-CoA · Methacrylyl-CoA · 3-Hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA · 3-Hydroxyisobutyric acid · 2-Methyl-3-oxopropanoic acid
isoleucine→ 2,3-Dihydroxy-3-methylpentanoic acid · 2-Methylbutyryl-CoA · Tiglyl-CoA · 2-Methylacetoacetyl-CoA
methionine→

generation of homocysteine: S-Adenosyl methionine · S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine · Homocysteine

conversion to cysteine: Cystathionine · alpha-Ketobutyric acid+Cysteine
threonine→ α-Ketobutyric acid
propionyl-CoA→ Methylmalonyl-CoA
G→fumarate
phenylalanine→tyrosine→ 4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvic acid · Homogentisic acid · 4-Maleylacetoacetate
G→oxaloacetate see urea cycle
Other
Cysteine metabolism Cysteine sulfinic acid

: MET

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Research compounds and miscellaneous agents
5-HT4R agonists RS-67,333 · SL65.0155
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σ1R agonists Opipramol
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COMT inhibitors Entacapone · Tolcapone
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FAAH inhibitors Acetaminophen/Paracetamol · AM-404 · URB-597
KOR antagonists 5-GNTI · Buprenorphine · JDTic · Norbinaltorphimine
MOR agonists Buprenorphine · Codeine · Dextropropoxyphene · Dihydrocodeine · Fentanyl · Heroin · Hydrocodone · Hydromorphone · Kratom · Methadone · Morphine · Opium · Oxycodone · Oxymorphone · Pethidine/Meperidine · Tapentadol · Tramadol
MT1/MT2R agonists Agomelatine · Melatonin · Ramelteon · Tasimelteon
NK1R antagonists Aprepitant · Casopitant · Fosaprepitant · L-733,060 · Maropitant · Vestipitant
NMDAR antagonists Dextromethorphan · Ketamine · Magnesium · Memantine · Zinc
PDE4 inhibitors Mesembrine (Kanna) · Rolipram
TRPC6 activators Adhyperforin (St. John's Wort) · Hyperforin (St. John's Wort)

: PSO/PSI

(, , , , , , ), /,

, drug(/////)
Anxiolytics (N05B)
GABAA PAMs
Benzodiazepine Adinazolam • Alprazolam • Bretazenil • Bromazepam • Camazepam • Chlordiazepoxide • Clobazam • Clonazepam • Clorazepate • Clotiazepam • Cloxazolam • Diazepam • Ethyl Loflazepate • Etizolam • Fludiazepam • Halazepam • Imidazenil • Ketazolam • Lorazepam • Medazepam • Nordazepam • Oxazepam • Pinazepam • Prazepam
Carbamates Emylcamate • Mebutamate • Meprobamate (Carisoprodol, Tybamate) • Phenprobamate • Procymate
Nonbenzodiazepines Abecarnil • Adipiplon • Alpidem • CGS-9896 • CGS-20625 • Divaplon • ELB-139 • Etifoxine • GBLD-345 • Gedocarnil • ICI-190,622 • L-838,417 • NS-2664 • NS-2710 • Ocinaplon • Pagoclone • Panadiplon • Pipequaline • RWJ-51204 • SB-205,384 • SL-651,498 • TP-003 • TP-13 • TPA-023 • Tracazolate • Y-23684 • ZK-93423
Others Chlormezanone • Etazolate • Ethanol (Alcohol) • Kavalactones (Kava Kava) • Skullcap • Valerenic Acid (Valerian)
α2δ VDCC Blockers Gabapentin • Pregabalin
5-HT1A Agonists Azapirones: Buspirone • Gepirone • Tandospirone; Others: Flesinoxan • Oxaflozane
H1 Antagonists Diphenylmethanes: Captodiame • Hydroxyzine; Others: Brompheniramine • Chlorpheniramine • Pheniramine
CRH1 Antagonists Antalarmin • CP-154,526 • Pexacerfont • Pivagabine
NK2 Antagonists GR-159,897 • Saredutant
MCH1 antagonists ATC-0175 • SNAP-94847
mGluR2/3 Agonists Eglumegad
mGluR5 NAMs Fenobam
TSPO agonists DAA-1097 • DAA-1106 • Emapunil • FGIN-127 • FGIN-143
σ1 agonists Afobazole • Opipramol
Others Benzoctamine • Carbetocin • Demoxytocin • Mephenoxalone • Mepiprazole • Oxanamide • Oxytocin • Promoxolane • Tofisopam • Trimetozine • WAY-267,464
#WHO-EM. ‡Withdrawn from market. CLINICAL TRIALS: †Phase III. §Never to phase III

: PSO/PSI

(, , , , , , ), /,

, drug(/////)
Dopaminergics
Receptor Ligands
Agonists Adamantanes: Amantadine • Memantine • Rimantadine; Aminotetralins: 7-OH-DPAT • 8-OH-PBZI • Rotigotine • UH-232; Benzazepines: 6-Br-APB • Fenoldopam • SKF-38,393 • SKF-77,434 • SKF-81,297 • SKF-82,958 • SKF-83,959; Ergolines: Bromocriptine • Cabergoline • Dihydroergocryptine • Lisuride • LSD • Pergolide; Dihydrexidine-derivatives: 2-OH-NPA • A-86,929 • Ciladopa • Dihydrexidine • Dinapsoline • Dinoxyline • Doxanthrine; Others: A-68,930 • A-77,636 • A-412,997 • ABT-670 • ABT-724 • Aplindore • Apomorphine • Aripiprazole • Bifeprunox • BP-897 • CY-208,243 • Dizocilpine • Etilevodopa • Flibanserin • Ketamine • Melevodopa • Modafinil • Pardoprunox • Phencyclidine • PD-128,907 • PD-168,077 • PF-219,061 • Piribedil • Pramipexole • Propylnorapomorphine • Pukateine • Quinagolide • Quinelorane • Quinpirole • RDS-127 • Ro10-5824 • Ropinirole • Rotigotine • Roxindole • Salvinorin A • SKF-89,145 • Sumanirole • Terguride • Umespirone • WAY-100,635
Antagonists Typical Antipsychotics: Acepromazine • Azaperone • Benperidol • Bromperidol • Clopenthixol • Chlorpromazine • Chlorprothixene • Droperidol • Flupentixol • Fluphenazine • Fluspirilene • Haloperidol • Loxapine • Mesoridazine • Methotrimeprazine • Nemonapride • Penfluridol • Perazine • Periciazine • Perphenazine • Pimozide • Prochlorperazine • Promazine • Sulforidazine • Sulpiride • Sultopride • Thioridazine • Thiothixene • Trifluoperazine • Triflupromazine • Trifluperidol • Zuclopenthixol; Atypical Antipsychotics: Amisulpride • Asenapine • Blonanserin • Clozapine • Gevotroline • Iloperidone • Lurasidone • Melperone • Molindone • Mosapramine • Ocaperidone • Olanzapine • Paliperidone • Perospirone • Piquindone • Quetiapine • Remoxipride • Risperidone • Sertindole • Tiospirone • Ziprasidone • Zotepine; Antiemetics: AS-8112 • Alizapride • Bromopride • Clebopride • Domperidone • Metoclopramide • Thiethylperazine; Others: Amoxapine • Buspirone • Butaclamol • Ecopipam • EEDQ • Eticlopride • Fananserin • L-745,870 • Nafadotride • Nuciferine • PNU-99,194 • Raclopride • Sarizotan • SB-277,011-A • SCH-23,390 • SKF-83,566 • SKF-83,959 • Sonepiprazole • Spiperone • Spiroxatrine • Stepholidine • Tetrahydropalmatine • Tiapride • UH-232 • Yohimbine
Reuptake Inhibitors
Plasmalemmal
DAT Inhibitors Piperazines: DBL-583 • GBR-12,935 • Nefazodone • Vanoxerine; Piperidines: BTCP • Desoxypipradrol • Dextromethylphenidate • Difemetorex • Ethylphenidate • Methylnaphthidate • Methylphenidate • Phencyclidine • Pipradrol; Pyrrolidines: Diphenylprolinol • Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) • Naphyrone • Prolintane • Pyrovalerone; Tropanes: β-CPPIT • Altropane • Brasofensine • CFT • Cocaine • Dichloropane • Difluoropine • FE-β-CPPIT • FP-β-CPPIT • Ioflupane (123I) • Iometopane • RTI-112 • RTI-113 • RTI-121 • RTI-126 • RTI-150 • RTI-177 • RTI-229 • RTI-336 • Tenocyclidine • Tesofensine • Troparil • Tropoxane • WF-11 • WF-23 • WF-31 • WF-33; Others: Adrafinil • Armodafinil • Amfonelic Acid • Amineptine • Benzatropine (Benztropine) • Bromantane • BTQ • BTS-74,398 • Bupropion (Amfebutamone) • Ciclazindol • Diclofensine • Dimethocaine • Diphenylpyraline • Dizocilpine • DOV-102,677 • DOV-21,947 • DOV-216,303 • Etybenzatropine (Ethylbenztropine) • EXP-561 • Fencamine • Fencamfamine • Fezolamine • GYKI-52,895 • Indatraline • Ketamine • Lefetamine • Levophacetoperane • LR-5182 • Manifaxine • Mazindol • Medifoxamine • Mesocarb • Modafinil • Nefopam • Nomifensine • NS-2359 • O-2172 • Pridefrine • Propylamphetamine • Radafaxine • SEP-225,289 • SEP-227,162 • Sibutramine • Tametraline • Tripelennamine
Vesicular
VMAT Inhibitors Deserpidine • Ibogaine • Reserpine • Tetrabenazine
Releasing Agents Morpholines: Fenbutrazate • Morazone • Phendimetrazine • Phenmetrazine; Oxazolines: 4-Methylaminorex (4-MAR, 4-MAX) • Aminorex • Clominorex • Cyclazodone • Fenozolone • Fluminorex • Pemoline • Thozalinone; Phenethylamines (also Amphetamines, Cathinones, Phentermines, etc): 2-Hydroxyphenethylamine (2-OH-PEA) • 4-CAB • 4-Methylamphetamine (4-MA) • 4-Methylmethamphetamine (4-MMA) • Alfetamine • Amfecloral • Amfepentorex • Amfepramone • Amphetamine (Dextroamphetamine, Levoamphetamine) • Amphetaminil • β-Methylphenethylamine (β-Me-PEA) • Benzodioxolylbutanamine (BDB) • Benzodioxolylhydroxybutanamine (BOH) • Benzphetamine • Buphedrone • Butylone • Cathine • Cathinone • Clobenzorex • Clortermine • D-Deprenyl • Dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA) • Dimethoxymethamphetamine (DMMA) • Dimethylamphetamine • Dimethylcathinone (Dimethylpropion, Metamfepramone) • Ethcathinone (Ethylpropion) • Ethylamphetamine • Ethylbenzodioxolylbutanamine (EBDB) • Ethylone • Fenethylline • Fenproporex • Flephedrone • Fludorex • Furfenorex • Hordenine • Lophophine (Homomyristicylamine) • Mefenorex • Mephedrone • Methamphetamine (Desoxyephedrine, Methedrine; Dextromethamphetamine, Levomethamphetamine) • Methcathinone (Methylpropion) • Methedrone • Methoxymethylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA) • Methoxymethylenedioxymethamphetamine (MMDMA) • Methylbenzodioxolylbutanamine (MBDB) • Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA; Tenamfetamine) • Methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) • Methylenedioxyhydroxyamphetamine (MDOH) • Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) • Methylenedioxymethylphenethylamine (MDMPEA; Homarylamine) • Methylenedioxyphenethylamine (MDPEA; Homopiperonylamine) • Methylone • Ortetamine • Parabromoamphetamine (PBA) • Parachloroamphetamine (PCA) • Parafluoroamphetamine (PFA) • Parafluoromethamphetamine (PFMA) • Parahydroxyamphetamine (PHA) • Paraiodoamphetamine (PIA) • Paredrine (Norpholedrine, Oxamphetamine) • Phenethylamine (PEA) • Pholedrine • Phenpromethamine • Prenylamine • Propylamphetamine • Tiflorex (Flutiorex) • Tyramine (TRA) • Xylopropamine • Zylofuramine; Piperazines: 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-bromobenzylpiperazine (2C-B-BZP) • Benzylpiperazine (BZP) • Methoxyphenylpiperazine (MeOPP; Paraperazine) • Methylbenzylpiperazine (MBZP) • Methylenedioxybenzylpiperazine (MDBZP; Piperonylpiperazine); Others: 2-Amino-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (2-ADN) • 2-Aminoindane (2-AI) • 2-Aminotetralin (2-AT) • 4-Benzylpiperidine (4-BP) • 5-IAI • Clofenciclan • Cyclopentamine • Cypenamine • Cyprodenate • Feprosidnine • Gilutensin • Heptaminol • Hexacyclonate • Indanylaminopropane (IAP) • Indanorex • Isometheptene • Methylhexanamine • Naphthylaminopropane (NAP) • Octodrine • Phthalimidopropiophenone • Propylhexedrine (Levopropylhexedrine) • Tuaminoheptane (Tuamine)
Enzyme Inhibitors
Anabolism
PAH Inhibitors 3,4-Dihydroxystyrene
TH Inhibitors 3-Iodotyrosine • Aquayamycin • Bulbocapnine • Metirosine • Oudenone
AAAD / DDC Inhibitors Benserazide • Carbidopa • Genistein • Methyldopa
Catabolism
MAO Inhibitors Nonselective: Benmoxin • Caroxazone • Echinopsidine • Furazolidone • Hydralazine • Indantadol • Iproclozide • Iproniazid • Isocarboxazid • Isoniazid • Linezolid • Mebanazine • Metfendrazine • Nialamide • Octamoxin • Paraxazone • Phenelzine • Pheniprazine • Phenoxypropazine • Pivalylbenzhydrazine • Procarbazine • Safrazine • Tranylcypromine; MAO-A Selective: Amiflamine • Bazinaprine • Befloxatone • Befol • Brofaromine • Cimoxatone • Clorgiline • Esuprone • Harmala alkaloids (Harmine, Harmaline, Tetrahydroharmine, Harman, Norharman, etc) • Methylene Blue • Metralindole • Minaprine • Moclobemide • Pirlindole • Sercloremine • Tetrindole • Toloxatone • Tyrima; MAO-B Selective: D-Deprenyl • L-Deprenyl (Selegiline) • Ladostigil • Lazabemide • Milacemide • Mofegiline • Pargyline • Rasagiline
COMT Inhibitors Entacapone • Tolcapone
DBH Inhibitors Bupicomide • Disulfiram • Dopastin • Fusaric Acid • Nepicastat • Phenopicolinic Acid • Tropolone
Others
Precursors L-Phenylalanine → L-Tyrosine → L-DOPA (Levodopa)
Cofactors Ferrous Iron (Fe2+) • Tetrahydrobiopterin • Vitamin B3 (Niacin, Nicotinamide → NADPH) • Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine, Pyridoxamine, Pyridoxal → Pyridoxal Phosphate) • Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid → Tetrahydrofolic Acid) • Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) • Zinc (Zn2+)
Others Activity Enhancers: Benzofuranylpropylaminopentane (BPAP) • Phenylpropylaminopentane (PPAP); Toxins: Oxidopamine (6-Hydroxydopamine)
Opioids (N02A)
Opium and Poppy straw derivatives
Crude opiate extracts/ whole opium products

Compote/Kompot/Polish heroin · Diascordium · B & O Supprettes · Dover's powder · Laudanum · Mithridate · Opium · Paregoric · Poppy straw concentrate · Poppy tea · Smoking opium · Theriac
Natural Opiates
Opium Alkaloids see also:

Codeine · Morphine · Oripavine · Pseudomorphine · Thebaine
Alkaloid Salts Mixtures

Pantopon · Papaveretum (Omnopon) · Tetrapon
Semisynthetics
Morphine Family

2-(p-Nitrophenyl)-4-isopropylmorphine · 14-Hydroxymorphine · 14β-Hydroxymorphine · 14β-Hydroxymorphone · 2,4-Dinitrophenylmorphine · 6-Methyldihydromorphine · 6-Methylenedihydrodesoxymorphine · 6-Acetyldihydromorphine/6-Monoacetyldihydromorphine · Acetyldihydromorphine · Azidomorphine · Chlornaltrexamine · Dihydrodesoxymorphine (Desomorphine) · Dihydromorphine · Ethyldihydromorphine · Hydromorphinol · Methyldesorphine · N-Phenethylnormorphine · Pseudomorphine · RAM-378
3,6 Diesters of Morphine

Acetylpropionylmorphine · Acetylbutyrylmorphine · Diacetyldihydromorphine (Dihydroheroin) · Diacetyldibenzoylmorphine · Dibutyrylcodeine · Dibutyrylmorphine · Dibenzoylmorphine · Diformylmorphine · Dipropanoylmorphine · Heroin (Diacetylmorphine) · Nicomorphine · Tetrabenzoylmorphine · Tetrabutyrylmorphine
Codeine-Dionine Family

14-Hydroxydihydrocodeine · Acetylcodeine · Benzylmorphine · Codeine methylbromide · Desocodeine · Dimethylmorphine (Methocodeine) · Methyldihydromorphine (Dihydroheterocodeine) · Ethylmorphine (Dionine) · Heterocodeine · Isocodeine · Isopropylmorphine · Morpholinylethylmorphine (Pholcodine) · Myrophine · Nalodeine · Transisocodeine
Morphinones & Morphols

1-Bromohydrocodone · 1-Bromooxycodone · 1-Chlorohydrocodone · 1-Chlorooxycodone · 1-Iodohydrocodone · 1-Iodooxycodone · 14-Cinnamoyloxycodeinone · 14-Ethoxymetopon · 14-Methoxymetopon · 14β-Hydroxymorphone · 14-O-Methyloxymorphone · 14-Phenylpropoxymetopon · 7-Spiroindanyloxymorphone · 8,14-Dihydroxydihydromorphinone · Acetylmorphone · α-hydrocodol · Bromoisopropropyldihydromorphinone · Codeinone · Codorphone · Codol · Codoxime · Thebacon (Acetyldihydrocodeinone / Dihydrocodeinone enol acetate) · Ethyldihydromorphinone · Hydrocodol · Hydrocodone · Hydromorphinone · Hydromorphol · Hydromorphone · Hydroxycodeine · Isopropropyldihydrocodeinone · Isopropropyldihydromorphinone · Methyldihydromorphinone · Metopon · Morphenol · Morphinol · Morphinone · Morphol · N-Phenethyl-14-ethoxymetopon · Oxycodone · Oxymorphol · Oxymorphinol · Oxymorphone · Pentamorphone · Semorphone
Morphides

α-chlorocodide (Alphachlorocodide/Chlorocodide) · α-chloromorphide · 3-Bromomorphide · Bromocodide · Bromomorphide (8-Bromomorphide) · Chlorocodide · Chloromorphide Codide · Fluorocodide (8-Fluorocodide) · Fluormorphide · Iodocodide · Iodomorphide (8-Iodomorphide) · Morphide
Dihydrocodeine Series

14-hydroxydihydrocodeine · Acetyldihydrocodeine · Dihydrocodeine · Dihydrodesoxycodeine/Desocodeine · Dihydroisocodeine · Nicocodeine · Nicodicodeine
Nitrogen Morphine Derivatives

1-Nitrocodeine · 2-Nitrocodeine · 1-Nitromorphine · 2-Nitromorphine · Codeine-N-Oxide · Heroin-N-Oxide · Hydromorphone-N-Oxide · Morphine-N-Oxide
Hydrazones

Acetylmorphazone · Hydromorphazone · Morphazone · Oxymorphazone

Halogenated Morphine Derivatives

1-Bromocodeine · 2-Bromocodeine · 1-Bromodiacetylmorphine · 2-Bromodiacetylmorphine · 1-Bromodihydrocodeine · 2-Bromodihydrocodeine · 1-Bromodihydromorphine · 2-Bromodihydromorphine · 1-Bromomorphine · 2-Bromomorphine · 1-Chlorocodeine · 2-Chlorocodeine · 1-Chlorodiacetylmorphine · 2-Chlorodiacetylmorphine · 1-Chlorodihydrocodeine · 2-Chlorodihydrocodeine · 1-Chlorodihydromorphine · 2-Chlorodihydromorphine · 1-Chloromorphine · 2-Chloromorphine · 1-Fluorocodeine · 2-Fluorocodeine · 1-Fluorodiacetylmorphine · 2-Fluorodiacetylmorphine · 1-Fluorodihydrocodeine · 2-Fluorodihydrocodeine · 1-Fluorodihydromorphine · 2-Fluorodihydromorphine · 1-Fluoromorphine · 2-Fluoromorphine · 3-Fluoromorphine · 1-Iodocodeine · 2-Iodocodeine · 1-Iododiacetylmorphine · 2-Iododiacetylmorphine · 1-Iododihydrocodeine · 2-Iododihydrocodeine · 1-Iododihydromorphine · 2-Iododihydromorphine · 1-Iodomorphine · 2-Iodomorphine · Chlorethylmorphine
Others

Pholcodine
Active Opiate Metabolites

Codeine-N-Oxide (Genocodeine) · Dihydromorphine-6-glucuronide · Hydromorphone-N-Oxide · Heroin-7,8-Oxide · Morphine-6-glucuronide · 6-Acetylmorphine · Morphine-N-Oxide (Genomorphine) · Naltrexol · Norcodeine · Normorphine
Morphinans
Morphinan Series

4-chlorophenylpyridomorphinan · Cyclorphan · Dextrallorphan · Dimemorfan · Levargorphan · Levallorphan · Levorphanol · Levorphan · Levophenacylmorphan · Levomethorphan · Norlevorphanol · N-Methylmorphinan · Oxilorphan · Phenomorphan · Methorphan / Racemethorphan · Morphanol / Racemorphanol · Ro4-1539 · Stephodeline · Xorphanol
Others

1-Nitroaknadinine · 14-episinomenine · 5,6-Dihydronorsalutaridine · 6-Ketonalbuphine · Aknadinine · Butorphanol · Cephakicine · Cephasamine · Cyprodime · Drotebanol · Fenfangjine G · Nalbuphine · Sinococuline · Sinomenine (Cocculine) · Tannagine
Benzomorphans

5,9-DEHB · Alazocine · Anazocine · Bremazocine · Cogazocine · Cyclazocine · Dezocine · Eptazocine · Etazocine · Ethylketocyclazocine · Fluorophen · Ketazocine · Metazocine · Pentazocine · Phenazocine · Quadazocine · Thiazocine · Tonazocine · Volazocine · Zenazocine
4-Phenylpiperidines
Pethidines (Meperidines)

4-Fluoromeperidine · Allylnorpethidine · Anileridine · Benzethidine · Carperidine · Difenoxin · Diphenoxylate · Etoxeridine (Carbetidine) · Furethidine · Hydroxypethidine (Bemidone) · Hydroxymethoxypethidine · Morpheridine · Oxpheneridine (Carbamethidine) · Meperidine-N-Oxide · Pethidine (Meperidine) · Pethidine Intermediate A · Pethidine Intermediate B (Norpethidine) · Pethidine Intermediate C (Pethidinic Acid) · Pheneridine · Phenoperidine · Piminodine · Properidine (Ipropethidine) · Sameridine
Prodines

Allylprodine · Isopromedol · Meprodine (α-meprodine / β-meprodine) · MPPP (Desmethylprodine) · PEPAP · Prodine (α-prodine / β-prodine) · Prosidol · Trimeperidine (Promedol)
Ketobemidones

Acetoxyketobemidone · Droxypropine · Ketobemidone · Methylketobemidone · Propylketobemidone
Others Alvimopan · Loperamide · Picenadol
Open Chain Opioids
Amidones

Dextromethadone · Dextroisomethadone · Dipipanone · Hexalgon (Norpipanone) · Isomethadone · Levoisomethadone · Levomethadone · Methadone · Methadone intermediate · Normethadone · Norpipanone · Phenadoxone (Heptazone) · Pipidone
Methadols

Dimepheptanol (Racemethadol) · Levacetylmethadol · Noracetylmethadol
Moramides

Dextromoramide · Levomoramide · Moramide intermediate · Racemoramide
Thiambutenes

Diethylthiambutene · Dimethylthiambutene · Ethylmethylthiambutene · Piperidylthiambutene · Pyrrolidinylthiambutene · Thiambutene · Tipepidine
Phenalkoxams

Dextropropoxyphene (Propoxyphene) · Dimenoxadol · Dioxaphetyl Butyrate · Levopropoxyphene · Norpropoxyphene
Ampromides

Diampromide · Phenampromide · Propiram
Others

IC-26 · Isoaminile · Lefetamine · R-4066
Anilidopiperidines

3-Allylfentanyl · 3-Methylfentanyl · 3-Methylthiofentanyl · 4-Phenylfentanyl · Alfentanil · α-methylacetylfentanyl · α-methylfentanyl · α-methylthiofentanyl · Benzylfentanyl · β-hydroxyfentanyl · β-hydroxythiofentanyl · β-methylfentanyl · Brifentanil · Carfentanil · Fentanyl · Lofentanil · Mirfentanil · Ocfentanil · Ohmefentanyl · Parafluorofentanyl · Phenaridine · Remifentanil · Sufentanil · Thenylfentanyl · Thiofentanyl · Trefentanil
Oripavine derivatives

6,14-Endoethenotetrahydrooripavine · 7-PET · Acetorphine · Alletorphine · BU-48 · Buprenorphine · Butorphine · Cyprenorphine · Dihydroetorphine · Diprenorphine (M5050) · Etorphine · 18,19-Dehydrobuprenorphine (HS-599) · N-cyclopropylmethyl-noretorphine · Nepenthone · Norbuprenorphine · Thevinone · Thienorphine
Phenazepanes

Ethoheptazine · Meptazinol · Metheptazine · Metethoheptazine · Proheptazine
Pirinitramides

Bezitramide · Piritramide
Benzimidazoles

Clonitazene · Etonitazene · Nitazene
Indoles

18-MC · 7-Acetoxymitragynine · 7-Hydroxymitragynine · Akuammidine · Akuammine · Eseroline · Hodgkinsine · Ibogaine · Mitragynine · Noribogaine · Pericine · ψ-Akuammigine
Diphenylmethylpiperazines

BW373U86 · DPI-221 · DPI-287 · DPI-3290 · SNC-80
Opioid peptides see also:

Casomorphin · DADLE · DALDA · DAMGO · Dermenkephalin · Dermorphin · Deltorphin · DPDPE · Dynorphin · Endomorphin · Endorphin · Enkephalin · Gliadorphin · Morphiceptin · Nociceptin · Octreotide · Opiorphin · Rubiscolin · TRIMU 5
Others

3-(3-Methoxyphenyl)-3-ethoxycarbonyltropane · AH-7921 • Azaprocin · BDPC · Bisnortilidine · BRL-52537 · Bromadoline • C-8813 · Ciramadol · Doxpicomine • Enadoline · Faxeladol · GR-89696 · Herkinorin · ICI-199,441 · ICI-204,448 · J-113,397 · JTC-801 · LPK-26 · Methopholine · N-Desmethylclozapine · NNC 63-0532 · Nortilidine · O-Desmethyltramadol · Phenadone · Prodilidine · Profadol · Ro64-6198 · Salvinorin A · SB-612,111 · SC-17599 · RWJ-394,674 · TAN-67 · Tapentadol · Tecodine · Tifluadom · Tilidine · Tramadol · Trimebutine · U-50,488 · U-69,593 · Viminol · W-18 ·
Opioid Antagonists & Inverse-Agonists

5'-Guanidinonaltrindole · β-Funaltrexamine · 6β-Naltrexol · Alvimopan · Amiphenazole · Binaltorphimine · Chlornaltrexamine · Clocinnamox · Cyclazocine · Cyprodime · Diprenorphine (M5050) · Fedotozine · JDTic · Levallorphan · Methocinnamox · Methylnaltrexone · Nalfurafine · Nalmefene · Nalmexone · Naloxazone · Naloxonazine · Naloxone · Naloxone benzoylhydrazone · Nalorphine · Naltrexone · Naltriben · Naltrindole · Norbinaltorphimine · Oxilorphan · S-allyl-3-hydroxy-17-thioniamorphinan (SAHTM)
Phenethylamines
Phenethylamines Psychedelics: 2C-B • 2C-B-FLY • 2C-C • 2C-D • 2C-E • 2C-G • 2C-I • 2C-N • 2C-P • 2C-SE • 2C-T • 2C-T-2 • 2C-T-4 • 2C-T-7 • 2C-T-8 • 2C-T-9 • 2C-T-13 • 2C-T-15 • 2C-T-17 • 2C-T-21 • 2C-TFM • 2C-YN • Allylescaline • DESOXY • Escaline • Isoproscaline • Jimscaline • Macromerine • MEPEA • Mescaline • Metaescaline • Methallylescaline • Proscaline • Psi-2C-T-4 • TCB-2 Stimulants: 2-OH-PEA • β-Me-PEA • Hordenine • N-Me-PEA • Phenethylamine (PEA) Entactogens: Lophophine • MDPEA • MDMPEA Others: BOH • DMPEA
Amphetamines Phenylisopropylamines Psychedelics: 3C-BZ • 3C-E • 3C-P • Aleph • Beatrice • Bromo-DragonFLY • D-Deprenyl • DMA • DMCPA • DMMDA • DOB • DOC • DOEF • DOET • DOI • DOM • DON • DOPR • DOTFM • Ganesha • MMDA • MMDA-2 • Psi-DOM • TMA • TeMA Stimulants: 4-MA • 4-MMA • 4-MTA • 5-IT • Alfetamine • Amfecloral • Amfepentorex • Amphetamine (Dextroamphetamine, Levoamphetamine) • Amphetaminil • Benfluorex • Benzphetamine • Cathine • Clobenzorex • Dimethylamphetamine • Ephedrine (EPH) • Ethylamphetamine • Fencamfamine • Fencamine • Fenethylline • Fenfluramine (Dexfenfluramine) • Fenproporex • Fludorex • Furfenorex • Isopropylamphetamine • Lefetamine • Mefenorex • Methamphetamine (Dextromethamphetamine, Levomethamphetamine) • Methoxyphenamine • MMA • Oxilofrine • Ortetamine • PBA • PCA • Phenpromethamine • PFA • PFMA • PIA • PMA • PMEA • PMMA • Phenylpropanolamine (PPA) • Prenylamine • Propylamphetamine • Pseudoephedrine (PSE) • Sibutramine • Tiflorex (Flutiorex) • Tranylcypromine • Xylopropamine • Zylofuramine Entactogens: 5-APDB • 6-APDB • IAP • MDA • MDEA ("Eve") • MDHMA (FLEA) • MDMA ("Ecstasy", "Adam") • MDOH • MMDMA • NAP • TAP Others: Amiflamine • D-Deprenyl • L-Deprenyl (Selegiline)
Phentermines Stimulants: Chlorphentermine • Cloforex • Clortermine • Etolorex • Mephentermine • Pentorex (Phenpentermine) • Phentermine Entactogens: MDPH • MDMPH
Cathinones Stimulants: Amfepramone • Brephedrone • Buphedrone • Bupropion (Amfebutamone) • Cathinone (Propion) • Dimethylcathinone (Dimethylpropion, Metamfepramone) • Ethcathinone (Ethylpropion) • Flephedrone • Methcathinone (Methylpropion) • Mephedrone • Methedrone Entactogens: Ethylone • Methylone
Phenylisobutylamines Entactogens: 4-CAB • 4-MAB • Ariadne (α-Et-DOM) • BDB (J) • Butylone (bk-MBDB) • EBDB (Ethyl-J) • Eutylone (bk-EBDB) • MBDB (Methyl-J; "Eden") Stimulants: Phenylisobutylamine
Phenylalkylpyrrolidines Stimulants: α-PBP • α-PPP • α-PVP • MDPBP • MDPPP • MDPV • MOPPP • MPBP • MPHP • MPPP • Naphyrone • PEP • Prolintane • Pyrovalerone
Catecholamines (and relatives..) 6-FNE • 6-OHDA • α-Me-DA • α-Me-TRA • Adrenochrome • Ciladopa • D-DOPA (Dextrodopa) • Dopamine • Epinephrine (Adrenaline) • Epinine • Fenclonine • Ibopamine • L-DOPA (Levodopa) • L-DOPS (Droxidopa) • L-Phenylalanine • L-Tyrosine • meta-Octopamine • meta-Tyramine • Metanephrine • Metirosine • Methyldopa • Nordefrin (Levonordefrin) • Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) • Normetanephrine • para-Octopamine • para-Tyramine
Miscellaneous Amidephrine • Arbutamine • Cafedrine • Denopamine • Dobutamine • Dopexamine • Etafedrine • Ethylnorepinephrine • Etilefrine • Gepefrine • Isoprenaline (Isoproterenol) • Isoetarine • Metaraminol • Metaterol • Methoxamine • Norfenefrine • Orciprenaline • Phenylephrine (Neosynephrine) • Phenoxybenzamine • Prenalterol • Pronethalol • Propranolol • Salbutamol (Albuterol; Levosalbutamol) • Synephrine (Oxedrine) • Theodrenaline • Xamoterol

Categories: Opioids | Animal products | Proteinogenic amino acids | Glucogenic amino acids | Ketogenic amino acids | Aromatic amino acids | Essential amino acids | Enkephalinase inhibitors

 

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acetone jpg 06 Jan 2006 19 10 4k 2 4 6 tribromophenol > 03 Feb 2006 20 13 4k m cresol s1 jpg 03 Feb 2006 20 13 4k D phenylalanine b jpg 08 Oct 2005 22 29 4k methanol s11 jpg 08 Mar 2006 18 10 4k 2 propanol s1 jpg 06 Jan 2006 19 10 4k j0233901 gif 09 Nov

Yahoo Images Search: Phenylalanine,
Mon May 25 03:34:55 2009
'Phenylalanine' Blogs
Note Congressional Aspartame Testimony (Opinion)
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Note Congressional Aspartame Testimony (Opinion)

NaturalNews.com

hu, 25 Feb 2010 07:00:00 GM

Phenylalanine. decomposes into diketopiperazin​e (DKP), a known carcinogen when exposed to warm temperatures or prolonged storage. At 84 degrees F, the wood alcohol converts to formaldehyde. The body`s temperature is 98.6 degrees F. Talk ...

Google Blogs Search: Phenylalanine,
Thu Feb 25 13:20:14 2010
'Phenylalanine' Answers
Is there a sugar free drink out there that does not contain aspartame or phenylalanine?
Q. I am looking for something that is tasty and fun to drink, but will not kill me in the long term! Thanks for your help!!!
Asked by Perplexed - Sun Apr 27 16:18:41 2008 - - 4 Answers - 0 Comments

A. I'd stick with beverages that have a small quantity of harmless sugar- cut gatorade in half with water, or dillute some kool-aide. Sugar won't kill you.
Answered by Dave E - Sun Apr 27 16:42:35 2008

Yahoo Answers Search: Phenylalanine,
Sun Apr 4 00:03:00 2010
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